The 19th century was the golden age of the novel, and most of the more famous examples of the form were systematically plotted, even where the plot structure simply traced the growth in personality of an individual hero or heroine. This kind of novel, of which in their very diverse ways Stendhal’s The Red and the Black (1830) and Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield (1850) are great examples, is known as Bildungsroman. Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary (1857) is as rigorously classicist in form as the 17th-century plays of Racine and Corneille, which were the high point of the French classical theatre, although Flaubert obeys laws more complex than those of the Aristotelians. Novels such as Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace (1865–69), Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Brothers Karamazov (1880), and the works of Balzac owe much of their power to their ability to overwhelm the reader with a massive sense of reality.

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